Alcohol and Stress

Why do people drink when stressed, or do they?

A common assumption that many people have is that people use alcohol to deal with stress. Although this may be "common knowledge," researchers have not been able to find much support for this notion. In other words, people as a whole do not seem to drink as a way to deal with stress. Some studies have shown, however, that men who believe that drinking leads to positive outcomes or feelings of carelessness tend to use alcohol as a stress reliever. Unfortunately, these studies asked people to reflect back on past behavior, which is not a very good way to investigate this issue. Researchers from the University of Connecticut Health Center recently conducted a study to investigate this issue using a more appropriate approach.

What was the research about?

Eighty-eight community residents participated in the study after responding to newspaper advertisements. They completed an initial questionnaire measuring alcohol expectancies, the outcomes they expected after drinking alcohol. Each day for sixty days, they completed a brief questionnaire about the stress they experienced, their desire to drink, and their alcohol consumption.

Consistent with some of the other studies on this issue, men who believed that drinking leads to positive outcomes or feelings of carelessness wanted to and actually did drink more alcohol on more stressful days than they did on less stressful days. Additionally, men who believed that drinking leads to impairment showed the opposite pattern, wanting to and actually drinking less alcohol on more stressful days than on less stressful days. Alcohol use among women was not related to stress.

Why should it matter to me?

This study provides strong evidence for why some people drink in response to stress. Men who drink may want to think about whether their beliefs about the consequences of alcohol consumption are leading them to use alcohol as an unhealthy, shortsighted approach to stress relief.

Source: Armeli, S., Carney, M. A., Tennen, H., Afflect, G., & O'Neil, T. P. (2000). Stress and alcohol use: A daily process examination of the stressor-vulnerability model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 979-994.

Job Stress and Sleep Disorders

It may seem obvious that job stress can lead to problems with sleep. Although the few studies that have investigated this issue have found a link between job stress and sleep disorders, the findings are not very convincing. These studies had problems such as basing the results on small, specialized samples of people that may not have been similar to people in general and using questionable measures of job stress and sleep disorders. Fortunately, a recent investigation by a group of researchers in Finland has provided a convincing explanation for the link between job stress and sleep disorders.

What was the research about?

Using data from the Helsinki Heart Study, a large-scale study that investigated whether certain drugs could prevent coronary heart disease, the researchers examined the data from 3,079 participants. The participants consisted of middle-aged men employed by two state agencies and five industrial companies. The researchers looked at the responses of participants on questionnaires measuring job demands, job decision latitude, and symptoms of sleep disorders. Job demands represented how demanding people's jobs were, such as has how fast or hard they had to work. Job decision latitude represented how much input they had about their job, such as whether they had the freedom to decide how to do their job or what was done on their job.

The researchers found that higher job demands and less decision latitude were related to experiencing more symptoms of sleep disorders. People who had demanding jobs about which they had little input tended to have the most problems falling asleep, staying asleep, and remaining alert during waking hours.

Why should it matter to me?

People who have sleep-related problems may want to consider whether their job is a factor. They may sleep better if they find a job that is less stressful or find a way to reduce the stress they experience while working (i.e., using stress management skills or somehow reducing job demands or increasing decision latitude).

Source: Kalimo, R., Tenkanen, L., Härmä, M., Poppius, E., & Heinsalmi, P. (2000). Job stress and sleep disorders: Findings from the Helsinki Heart Study. Stress Medicine, 16, 65-75.

Workaholism

Most people are familiar with the term workaholic. What exactly is a workaholic, though? More importantly, is workaholism something people should strive for or try to avoid?

Regarding a definition of workaholism, the first and best definition of workaholism proposed by researchers identifies three types of workaholics: workaholics, work enthusiasts, and enthusiastic workaholics. Workaholics are very involved and strongly driven but do not enjoy their work very much. Work enthusiasts are very involved and enjoy their work very much but lack drive. Enthusiastic workaholics are very involved, strongly driven, and really enjoy their work.

Unfortunately, very little research has been done to find out the extent to which workaholism involves stress and other problems. Despite the lack of evidence, researchers have strong opinions on the subject. Some argue that workaholism is beneficial for the individual and the organization. Others argue that workaholism is damaging to the individual and the organization, likening it to other addictions, such as alcoholism. A researcher at York University in Canada recently reported the findings from a study aimed at clarifying this issue.

What was the research about?

The study examined the association between the different types of workaholism and well-being. Five hundred and thirty people responded to a set of questionnaires sent by mail. The participants had MBA degrees from a Canadian university and were employed full-time. Responses on the questionnaires were used to determine workaholism types and well-being.

The results demonstrated that different types of workaholism were related to well-being in different ways, which may help explain some of the inconsistencies in the other research. Compared to work enthusiasts and enthusiastic workaholics, workaholics tended to suffer more from negative bodily symptoms (e.g., headache), to engage less in healthy behaviors (e.g., exercise), and to be worse off emotionally.

Why should it matter to me?

People who have a great deal of involvement in their work may want to figure out what type workaholism they have, if any. People who fall into the workaholic category may find their job less stressful and feel better overall if they find a way to make their job more enjoyable and possibly also find a way to avoid being excessively driven to work.

Source: Burke, R. J. (2000). Workaholism in organizations: Psychological and physical well-being consequences. Stress Medicine, 16, 11-16.

Trying To Quit Smoking?

Stress is related to cessation success for pregnant women

Many people are aware of the adverse health consequences associated with smoking and are trying to quit. The consequences of smoking get worse when a woman becomes pregnant. She is not only putting herself in danger but also her unborn child. Consequently, it is especially important to understand what influences the chances of cessation success for pregnant women. Researchers at the Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound, the University of Washington, and the University of Minnesota recently took on the challenge.

What was the research about?

Eight hundred and nineteen pregnant smokers in two large cities participated in a smoking cessation study. They were randomly assigned to one of three types of programs designed to help them quit smoking, and they were surveyed at multiple times before, during, and after pregnancy. Among other things, information was gathered on smoking behavior and stress.

The findings showed that smoking cessation was related to low levels of stress in early but not late pregnancy. In other words, less stress only was related to being able to quit smoking early on during pregnancy, not later on during pregnancy. Thus, it is possible that reducing stress early in pregnancy may make it easier to quit smoking. It is also possible, however, that quitting smoking early in pregnancy serves as a stress reducer.

Why should it matter to me?

Women who smoke and who have not been pregnant for too long may find that stress reduction can help them quit smoking. Alternatively, quitting smoking early on during pregnancy may help women reduce the stress in their lives.

Source: Ludman, E. J., McBride, C. M., Nelson, J. C., Curry, S. J., Grothaus, L. C., Lando, H. A., & Pirie, P. L. (2000). Stress, depressive symptoms, and smoking cessation among pregnant women. Health Psychology, 19,21-27.

Cancer-Related Stress
Why unsupportive spouses promote stress in cancer patients

The relationships between cancer patients and their spouses are important. They play an important role in determining how well cancer patients adjust to the disease. When the spouse of a cancer patient engages in unsupportive behaviors, the patient experiences increased stress. Researchers at the Fox Chase Cancer Center and Research Analysis and Consultation recently reported the findings from a study aimed at finding out why.

What was the research about?

The participants in the study were 191 married cancer patients. They responded to questionnaires measuring the extent to which they perceived negative spousal behaviors, felt in control over their emotions and the course of the disease, used an avoidant style of coping (i.e., trying not to think about it and trying to avoid reminders of it), felt able to cope, and experienced stress.

The results showed that the using an avoidant style of coping and feeling unable to cope were two reasons why unsupportive spouses promoted stress in cancer patients.

Why should it matter to me?

First, people who are married to someone with cancer should try to be supportive. Second, cancer patients with unsupportive spouses should not use avoidant coping styles and should try to be more confident in their ability to cope. One option, for example, would be to learn more effective coping styles that they can be more confident in, such as finding social support from other sources like other family members, close friends, and support groups.

Source: Manne, S., & Glassman, M. (2000). Perceived control, coping efficacy, and avoidance coping as mediators between spouses' unsupportive behaviors and cancer patients' psychological distress. Health Psychology, 29, 155-164.

Exercise and Meditation Influences on the Immune System

Both meditation and exercise are useful ways to get stress under control. They also seem to have an effect on the immune system. In a recent attempt to tie these issues together, researchers in Norway investigated the effects of long-term meditation on the immune system before, during, and after exercise.

What was the research about?

Twenty runners in a half-marathon race participated in the study. One group in the study consisted of 10 runners who had practiced mediation for a long time. The other group in the study consisted of 10 runners who did not practice meditation. Blood samples were taken from the participants before, immediately after, and 2 hours after the race to determine the number of immune cells in the blood stream.

The results showed that certain types of immune cells were much higher after the race, regardless of whether participants practiced long-term mediation.

Why should it matter to me?

Exercise can help people avoid getting sick by boosting the immune system. Moreover, using relaxation techniques like meditation do not interfere with this exercise-related benefit.

Source: Solberg, E. E., Halvorsen, R., & Holen, A. (2000). Effect of mediation on immune cells. Stress Medicine, 16, 185-190.

Marijuana Use and Depression

Although marijuana is illegal in the US, some people still use it. Among those who do, some use it to try to cope with stress and others just use it for the "high." Besides the legal consequences of being caught with the drug, some studies have found evidence suggesting that marijuana use may be associated with depression. Other studies have contradicted these findings, suggesting that marijuana is not related to depression. So, is marijuana use related to depressions, and if so, does it matter why a person uses the drug? A recent study by researchers from The Ohio State University and Kent State University provided some answers to these questions.

What was the research about?

The data for the study came from the 1985 portion of the Young Men and Drugs Survey, which involved face-to-face interviews with thousands of men over several years. The men who participated in the survey were a good representation of 30- to 40-year-old men in the general US population during 1985. The participants were asked questions about marijuana use, educational attainment, employment and marital status, other drug use, and depression.

The results showed that marijuana use, stress, and depression were related in a complex way. In general, men who had used marijuana at some point in their lives, spent fewer years in school, were less likely to be married or have jobs, and used other drugs (e.g., alcohol, tobacco, other illegal drugs) more, which accounted for why they became more depressed than did those who had not ever used marijuana. The frequency of current marijuana use, however, was not related to depression for everyone. Increased frequency of current marijuana use was associated with more depression only for those who used it as a way to try to cope with stress. For those who did not use marijuana as a way to try to cope with stress, increased frequency of current marijuana use was actually associated with less depression. Due to the nature of the study, however, it is unclear whether marijuana can actually cause depression for some people or whether the two just tend to seem related for other reasons.

Why should it matter to me?

People who are depressed probably should not try to use marijuana to cope with their problems because it might actually make things worse. Even though marijuana use may actually lead to less depression for those who do not try to use it as a way of coping, the negative legal consequences of being caught with the drug and the stress that most likely would follow are probably not worth risk.

Source: Green, B. E., & Ritter, C. (2000). Marijuana use and depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 40-49.